Shola Forests

• The Shola forests of South India derive their name from the Tamil word solai, which means a ‘tropical rain forest’. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.

• Classified as ‘Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest’ by experts Harry George Champion and SK Seth.

• The Sholas are found in the upper reaches of the Nilgiris, Anamalais, Palni hills, Kalakadu, Mundanthurai and Kanyakumari in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

• These forests are found sheltered in valleys with sufficient moisture and proper drainage, at an altitude of more than 1,500 metres.

• The upper reaches are covered with grasslands, known as Shola grasslands.

• The vegetation that grows in Shola forests is evergreen. The trees are stunted and have many branches. Their rounded and dense canopies appear in different colours.

• Generally, the leaves are small in size and leathery. Red-coloured young leaves turning into different colours on maturity is a prominent characteristic of the Shola forests. Epiphytes like lichens, ferns and bryophytes usually grow on the trees.

• Sholas play a major role in conserving water supply of the Nilgiris’ streams.

MICA Mineral : Distribution in India

• Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It can be clear, black, green, red yellow or brown. 

• Due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance most used in electric and electronic industries.

• Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau, Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand; around Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nellore in Andhra Pradesh.

• Mica in India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telanganga and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.

• In Jharkhand, high quality mica is obtained in a belt extending over a distance of about 150 km, in length and about 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau.

• In Andhra Pradesh, Nellore district produces the best quality mica. 

• In Rajasthan, mica belt extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur. 

• Mica deposits also occur in Mysuru and Hasan districts of Karanataka; Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu; Alleppey in Kerala; Ratnagiri in Maharashtra; Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.

BAUXITE : Its Source and Production in India

• Several ores contain aluminum, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminium is obtained.

• Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of the country.

• India’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau (Chattisgarh), Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.

• Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state in India. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers. The other two areas which have been increasing their production are Bolangir and Koraput.

• Other major states are Jharkhand (10%), Gujarat (9%), Chattisgarh, Maharashtra each 6%.

• Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite deposits in the state.

• The patlands of Lohardaga in Jharkhand have rich deposits.

• Bhavanagar, and Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major deposits and producing regions. 

• Katni- Jabalpur area and Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh have important deposits of bauxite. 

• Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Maharashtra are important producers.

• Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.

Sericulture in India : Types of Silk and Its Production in India

• Silk is an insect fibre, with lustre, drape and strength. Because of these unique features, silk is known as the “Queen of Textiles”, the world over. 

• India with the production of 34,903 MTs of silk is the second largest producer of silk in the world after China and also the largest consumer.

• India is the only country, which is producing all the four commercial varieties of silk, namely Mulberry, Tropical & Oak Tasar, Muga and Eri.

• Among the four varieties of silk produced, Mulberry accounted for 73.97% (25,818 MT), Tasar 4.20% (1,466 MT), Eri 21.10% (7,364 MT) and Muga 0.73% (255 MT) of the total raw silk production of 34,903 MT.

• Bivoltine raw silk production has increased by 17.07% to 7941 MT during 2021-22 from 6,783 MT 2020-21.

• Further, under Vanya silks, Tasar production has reduced by 45.48% during 2021-22 over 2020-21, main reason for this is adverse climatic conditions and erratic rainfall during crop season. 

• The major silk-producing states in the country are Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. 

• Karnataka contributed around 32.3% of the total silk production in the country during 2022-23. This was followed by Andhra Pradesh which had a share of 26.0% in the overall silk production during 2022-23.

• Bankura, Kolar, and Jamnagar have historically been important centers for silk weaving and production.

List of languages in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:-

1. Assamese,
2. Bengali, 
3. Gujarati, 
4. Hindi, 
5. Kannada,
6. Kashmiri,
7. Konkani, 
8. Malayalam, 
9. Manipuri, 
10. Marathi, 
11. Nepali, 
12. Oriya, 
13. Punjabi, 
14. Sanskrit, 
15. Sindhi, 
16. Tamil, 
17. Telugu, 
18. Urdu 
19. Bodo,
20. Santhali,
21. Maithili and 
22. Dogri

Of these languages,

• 14 were initially included in the Constitution. 
• Sindhi language was added in 1967. 
• Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in 1992. 
• Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004.

DEPARTMENTS OF DELHI SULTANATE FROM 13th to the 16th CENTURY

1. Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Revenue):  Headed by Chief Revenue Officer (Wazir), 

1. for revenue collection, 
2. land assessment, and 
3. administration of taxes. 

2.  Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department): Responsible for recruitment, payment of salaries to soldiers, and the overall maintenance of the military, crucial for safeguarding the empire against external threats.

3. Diwan-i-Insha (Department of Correspondence): Managed official communications and correspondence.

4. Diwan-i-Risalat (Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs):  It was responsible for interpreting and implementing Islamic law (Sharia), settling legal disputes, and managing religious endowments.

5. Diwan-i-Kohi (Agriculture Department): Responsible for agricultural matters, land development, and irrigation projects.

6. Diwan-i-Bandagan (Slave Department): This department looked after the affairs related to slaves, who often served in various administrative and military roles.

7. Diwan-i-Siyasat (Foreign Affairs Department): Dealt with foreign relations, diplomacy, and trade. This department was responsible for maintaining diplomatic ties, negotiating treaties, and overseeing trade relations with neighboring regions and foreign powers.

8. Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity Department): Responsible for charitable and welfare activities. 

9. Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Police Department): Administered law and order, with local officials known as Shiqdars ensuring public safety, preventing crimes, and maintaining discipline.

10.  Kotwal (City Administrator):It was responsible for the administration and security of cities. The Kotwal was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and managing municipal affairs.