Desert Biome : Desert, Location and its Classifications

 Desert and its Classification

• Desert is a biome in which evaporation exceeds precipitation. The rate of evaporation varies with temperature. 

• Desert is likely to develop where the annual precipitation is less than 250 mm. It is important to remember that aridity (or the absence of moisture) is the common characteristic of all deserts, while temperature varies from desert to desert. 

• Deserts may be classified into hot and dry deserts, semi deserts, coastal deserts and cold deserts, based on the amount and distribution of temperature and precipitation.

• Deserts in which sand is in abundance, completely covering the ground and leading to the formation of dunes that resemble wave-like ridges of the ocean surface, are called erg, meaning a sand sea.

• In other deserts, the wind may blow away all the sand, leaving behind closely packed, interlocking angular rock fragments. Such a stony desert is known as reg.

• In some deserts the landscape is dominated by boulders and exposed bedrock. Hamada is the name given to such deserts.

Deserts Location

• Deserts are generally located at the 30 Degree Latitude (in both hemisphere).

• The largest hot deserts, like the Sahara and Arabian deserts, are located in the trade wind belt near the sub-tropical high pressure belts in both the hemispheres. These are places located under the descending limb of the Hadley Cell that dominates the atmospheric circulation in tropical areas. As the air subsides, it warms adiabatically, inhibiting condensation and precipitation.

• Some deserts are located on the leeward side of mountains and the rain shadow effect is responsible for their formation. The Sonoran desert in North America is located to the east of the coastal ranges.

• Deserts are also located in the interior of continents. Their interior location prevents them from receiving moisture from the oceans. The Gobi desert has been formed due to the inland location as well as the rain shadow effect.

• The presence of cold ocean currents also favours the formation of deserts. The formation of the Kalahari desert in Africa and the Atacama desert in South America is aided by the effects of the Benguela and Humboldt currents respectively.

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International Seabed Authority (ISA)

Ø  The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an autonomous international organization established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

Ø   Headquarters in Kingston, Jamaica, came into existence on 16 November 1994, upon the entry into force of UNCLOS.

Ø  It became fully operational as an autonomous international organization in June 1996. 

Ø  ISA is the organization through which States Parties to UNCLOS organize and control all mineral-resources-related activities in the international seabed area, also known as “the Area.”

Ø  The international seabed area is the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and represents around 50 per cent of the total area of the world’s oceans.

Ø  ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities.

Ø  All States Parties to UNCLOS are ipso facto members of ISA. As of 18 May 2023, ISA has 169 Members, including 168 Member States and the European Union.

FINDINGS AT HARAPPAN SITES IN INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Ø Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area.

Ø Evidences of fire altars are found in Lothal and Kalibangan towards the Late Harappan phase, showing presence of immigrants.

Ø Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate store houses.

Ø Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago.

Ø Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.

Ø The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in West Asia.

Ø Copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.

Ø Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Ø We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.

Ø A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.

Arthashatra- A Book on Statecraft

•  It is a book on Statecraft written/compiled by Chanakya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya during 4th Century BC.

• There is a widely held belief that the text of Arthashastra was not available till it was discovered by Sanskrit scholar Dr R Shamasastry. He found the 17th century writing on a bundle of palm leaves from a pandit in Tanjore in 1904.

• Arthashastra, has 15 parts (or books), 180 divisions, 150 chapters and approximately 6,000 verses or shlokas.

1. Book-1 contains details about the King, his ministers and other officers
2. Book 2 lays down the duties of the various executive officers of the state and state’s role in activities like agriculture, mining etc
3. Book-3 contains themes of law and administration.
4. Book 4 highlights suppression of crime.
5. Book-5 contains Miscellaneous topics like salary of officials etc.
6. Book-6 contains constituent elements of a state and foreign policy.
7. Book 7 also covers additional details on foreign policy.
8. Book-8 contains details of various calamities which may hamper functioning of a state.
9. Book-9 contains details pertaining to war preparations.
10. Book 10 relates to the art of fighting and its different modes.
11. Book 11 describes how a conqueror should tackle oligarchies governed by a group of chiefs instead of a single king.
12. Book 12 highlights how a weak king can overcome a strong king.
13. Book 13 describes how to conquer an enemy’s fort.
14. Book-14 informs about occult and secret practices.
15.  Book-15 and the last book highlights logical techniques and methodology used in Arthashastra.       

•  Arthashastra could be used as a manual of statecraft by any king, it was mainly meant for the vijigishu (one who wanted to conquer whole Indian subcontinent) and such a king was described as chakravarti in later Buddhist texts.

• Kautilya described structure of the state in his Saptanga theory or seven organs/elements of state or seven prakriti at the beginning of Book 6.

• The text structure of the Arthashstra as a whole follows the sequence of seven elements, starting with Swami in Book 1.

• Amatya, janapada, durga, and kosa are covered in Books 2 to 5. Danda and mitra are dealt with in Books 6 to 14.

• Saptanga was not an original contribution of Kautilya as some earlier works have referred to this theory.

• The seven elements combine to form a state. The seven elements of state as described by Kautilya are;

1.     Swami or the King.

2.     Amatya or the Minister

3.     Janpada or the People

4.     Durga or the Fort.

5.     Kosha or Treasury

6.   Danda or Sena or Coercive Power of State (Armed Forces, Secret Service and Police)

7.     Mitra or Ally/Friend

 

Kautilya has detailed many types of forts in Arthashastra.

a)     Audak fort is surrounded by water body.

b)    Parvat fort is built amidst high mountains. These forts play an important part while defending against an external attack.

c)     Dhanvan fort is surrounded by desert. 

d)    Van fort is situated amidst dense forest. Kautilya further says that the capital should be built at the centre of the kingdom and it should be divided in four districts, one for each caste.

                     

Kautilya has described six types of army.

  I. Clan army: Constitutes of hereditary soldiers like kshatriyas, as son of a soldier becomes a soldier. Kautilya gives maximum importance to this type of army. Such soldiers are loyal to the king and know different types of war strategies.

   II.         Hired soldiers or militia army.

 

  III.         Mobilisation of militia army is time consuming compared to a standing army.

 

   IV.        An army constituted by the corporations.

 

    V.         An army raised by recruiting the assistance of friendly countries.

  VI.         A fighting unit made up of prisoners of war i.e. enemy soldiers caught during a war.

 

 VII.         An army made up of tribal people.

 VIII.         Kautilya did not comment on naval warfare as he did not say anything about a sea-going navy. Army, according to Kautilya, is divided in four services – infantry, cavalry, chariots and war elephants. Kautilya has highlighted four basic forms of warfare.

 

                                          i.         Mantra-yuddha: war by counsel or use of diplomacy by a weaker king who finds it unwise to fight against a strong adversary.

                                          ii.        Prakash-yuddha: regular warfare where opposing armies fight according to established rules and regulations.

                                        iii.        Kuta-yuddha: irregular warfare including ambushes and raids in enemy territory.

                                        iv.        Tusnim-yuddha: includes covert operations like sabotage and targeted killings.

Major Inscription of Ancient India : Nashik, Prayag, Deoria and Hathigumpha

NASHIK INSCRIPTION :

• Nashik Inscription or Nashik Prashasti gives details of the reign of Gautamiputra Satkarni. The inscription was issued by Gautami Balshri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satkarni in the 2nd Century CE.

• The inscription found in the Cave No. 3 of Pandavleni Caves in Nashik. The inscription is dated to the 19th regnal year of Vashishtiputra Pulumavi or Pulumayi who was the son of Gautamiputra Satkarni.

• The Nashik prashasti inscription states that Gautamiputra uprooted the Kshaharata (or Khagarata) family, to which Nahapana belonged.

• The Nashik inscription reaffirmed a grant of land to Buddhist monks living at the Triraśmi peak. This land was earlier in the possession of Nahapana's son-in-law Rishabhadatta (also known as Ushavadata), who had donated it to the monks.

PRAYAG PRASHASTI OR INSCRIPTION

• It was composed by Harishena, the Court poet of Samduragupta. It gives details about the reign of Samudragupta. This was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.

• It is in excellent Sanskrit written in the more refined Gupta script (a later version of Brahmi).

• The inscription is a panegyric praising Samudragupta and lists the political and military achievements of his reign including his expeditions to the south.

• It mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother. His mother, Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.

• His great grandfather and grandfather are mentioned simply as maharajas.

DEOPARA PRASHASTI OR INSCRIPTION

• Deopara Prashasti an important epigraphic source for the reconstruction of the history of ancient Bengal. This inscription contains some eulogistic verses which throw important light on the history of sena dynasty, especially Vijayasena (1178–1206 AD).

• Famous Sanskrit poet of Sena period Umapatidhara, a minister of Laksmanasena, composed it.

HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION / ELEPHANT CAVE INSCRIPTION

• The Hathigumpha Inscription WRITTEN  in Prakrit language incised in Brahmi script in a cavern called Hathigumpha in Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India.

• It is dated between 2nd-century BCE and 1st-century CE, and was inscribed by the Jain king Kharavela of Kalinga kingdom.

HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTION OR ELEPHANT CAVE INSCRIPTION

 

• The Hathigumpha Inscription written  in Prakrit language incised in Brahmi script in a cavern called Hathigumpha in Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India.

• It is dated between 2nd-century BCE and 1st-century CE, and was inscribed by the Jain king Kharavela of Kalinga kingdom.

DEOPARA PRASHASTI OR DEOPARA INSCRIPTION

 

• Deopara Prashasti an important epigraphic source for the reconstruction of the history of ancient Bengal. This inscription contains some eulogistic verses which throw important light on the history of sena dynasty, especially Vijayasena (1178–1206 AD).

• Famous Sanskrit poet of Sena period Umapatidhara, a minister of Laksmanasena, composed it.

PRAYAG PRASHASTI OR PRAYAG INSCRIPTION

• It was composed by Harishena, the Court poet of Samduragupta. It gives details about the reign of Samudragupta. This was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.

• It is in excellent Sanskrit written in the more refined Gupta script (a later version of Brahmi).

• The inscription is a panegyric praising Samudragupta and lists the political and military achievements of his reign including his expeditions to the south.

• It mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother. His mother, Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.

• His great grandfather and grandfather are mentioned simply as maharajas.

NASHIK INSCRIPTION OR NASHIK PRASHASTI

 

• Nashik Inscription or Nashik Prashasti gives details of the reign of Gautamiputra Satkarni. The inscription was issued by Gautami Balshri, the mother of Gautamiputra Satkarni in the 2nd Century CE.

• The inscription found in the Cave No. 3 of Pandavleni Caves in Nashik. The inscription is dated to the 19th regnal year of Vashishtiputra Pulumavi or Pulumayi who was the son of Gautamiputra Satkarni.

• The Nashik prashasti inscription informs that Gautamiputra uprooted the Kshaharata (or Khagarata) family, to which Nahapana belonged.

• The Nashik inscription reaffirmed a grant of land to Buddhist monks living at the Triraśmi peak. This land was earlier in the possession of Nahapana's son-in-law Rishabhadatta (also known as Ushavadata), who had donated it to the monks.